Key Developments
The 19th century is sometimes referred to as the ‘century of humiliation’ for China.
- Opium Wars and imposition of Unequal Treaties
- Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1894)
- Defeat to Japan in 1894
- 100 Days’ Reform 1898
- Overthrow of Guangxu by Cixi
- Boxer rebellion (1900)
- Defeat by Foreign Powers (1902)
Opium Wars (1849-42 and 1856-1860)
Attempts to resist the British and French opium trade in China led to the Opium Wars (1839-42; 1856-60). China was defeated and had to accept reparation costs and forced her to accept ‘Unequal Treaties’ which reduced China to semi-colonial status, involving the loss of land and acceptance of foreign trade. The first of those treaties – the Treaty of Nanking – involved the loss of Hong Kong to the British.
The Self-Strengthening Movement
From the 1860s, the Self-Strengthening Movement was designed to improve China’s military and to use western learning to strengthen her against her western enemies. Until the 1890s these reforms were designed to improve the army but had little impact on the institutions or ideology of the Chinese state. However, a number of events in the late 19th century led some reformers to want to take things further. Japan which had undergone its own westernising Meiji restoration reforms, defeated China and took Korea in 1894. The defeat led to the imposition of further Unequal Treaties, growing opium addiction, political division and insurrection. For example, Sun Yat-sen led a rebellion in Gungzhou province but was forced into exile when it failed in 1895.
The Hundred Days’ Reform
These events causing the Qing dynasty under the Emperor Guangxu to listen to the reformers. In 1898, Emperor Guangxu initiated ‘100 Days Reform’ – which included 40 proposals that would have changed every aspect of Chinese society, including the abolition of traditional examination systems, reform of the army and navy, the abolition of certain Mandarin positions, the introduction of a liberal western education and transition to a constitutional monarchy and parliament.
The overthrow of Emperor Guangxu by Empress Dowager Cixi
The Empress Dowager Cixi was worried about the effects of the reforms and, with her conservative supporters seized control of government put a stop to the reforms. The Emperor Guangxu was kept under house arrest in the Summer Palace.The Boxer Rebellion
Meanwhile, the Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists began carrying out attacks on foreigners and Chinese Christians. It was anti-foreigner, anti-imperialist and anti-Christian in its origins and aims.In January 1900, The Empress Dowager Cixi issued edicts in support of the Boxers and urged provincial governors to support them. When foreign troops arrived from the 8 nation alliance, to defend their economic interests, Cixi ordered the regular Chinese army to support the Boxers. One of her generals – Yuan Shikai – refused to fight the foreigners. Later he would be removed.
Defeat to Foreign Powers
However, Western powers inflicted defeat on the Boxers and on the Qing.
Reparations of £67 million were imposed, to be paid over 39 years.
Open Door Policy imposed on China.China’s military was to be destroyed and foreign soldiers emplaced around Beijing.
The imposition of foreign troops led to further erosion for the Qing dynasty and eventually, to Cixi’s initiation of Self-Strengthening Reforms.
RGS History 